Metaphor: Introduction

Metaphor is often thought of as something that is confined to literary texts, but as we shall see, this really isn't the case.

Everyday language is full of metaphor, and it is actually quite difficult to use language without it!

Let's look at an example - the metaphor of LIFE IS A JOURNEY. (In linguistics, the standard way to show metaphor is by using capital letters). In this metaphor, the abstract concept of 'life' is understood as a concrete, physical 'journey'.

This generates sentences such as:

• We're moving forward with the plans.
• It feels like my life is going so quickly.
• They've taken a big step backwards.
• I'm at the middle-aged crossroads.

Of course, there is no physical movement being described in each of these. There are no 'middle-aged crossroads' to stop at, and plans do not physically 'move forwards'. Metaphors such as these are useful in language as they provide a way of talking about something abstract and intangible (e.g. 'life') as something concrete and tangible (e.g. 'a journey').

Examples

Here are some examples of different metaphors:

TIME IS MONEY

• I've spent far too much time on this.
• I've invested a lot of time here.

GOOD IS UP / DOWN IS BAD

• Things are looking up.
• I feel really down today.

More examples

LIFE IS A CONTAINER

• I've had a full life.
• Her life is crammed with activities.
• Get the most out of life.
• Live your life to the fullest.

POLITICS IS WAR

• The Labour Party are battling hard for votes.
• This policy is making victims out of the most disadvantaged.
• She shot down all of his arguments.

Could you think of any other examples for these categories of metaphors?

Metaphor: Activity

Attached to this page are some extracts of a 2016 speech delivered by David Cameron after the UK voted to leave the European Union. For each extract, you will be asked to do two things:

1) Work out what metaphor is being used. What is being understood in terms of what?

2) Comment on why you think that metaphor is used. What purpose does it serve? What kind of meaning does it carry, in the wider context of the political situation in which the speech took place?

You will see on the handout that one example has been done for you.

Extension 1

Using the same metaphor structures (e.g. TIME IS MONEY, DOWN IS BAD, etc.) that you found in David Cameron's speech, write a new section of the speech. You could then swap with a partner and analyse each other's writing in terms of metaphor.

Extension 2

Find a different political text - a speech or campaign leaflet, for example. Does this use any of the same metaphors that you found in David Cameron's speech? What comparisons could you make between the use of metaphor in the two texts? You could also:

• compare the use of metaphor across two different political parties
• compare a politican's use of metaphor pre/post-election
• investigate a fictional politican's (e.g. a character from 'House of Cards') use of metaphor and examine whether this has any similiarities to a non-fictional politician

Further reading

• The seminal work on metaphor in everyday language is Metaphors We Live By by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). 
• A key search term for finding out more is conceptual metaphor.
• Elena Semino's work on metaphor in healthcare (e.g. http://www.ehospice.com/uk/ArticleView/tabid/10697/ArticleId/13414/langu...)